導(dǎo)語：英語委婉語分類與構(gòu)成方式研究論文一文來源于網(wǎng)友上傳，不代表本站觀點(diǎn)，若需要原創(chuàng)文章可咨詢客服老師，歡迎參考。

[Abstract]AsanindispensableandnaturalpartofEnglishlanguage,Englisheuphemismshaveexistedforalongtime.Theappearanceofeverything,includingeuphemism,hasitsreasons.TheemergenceofEnglisheuphemismshasacloserelationwithlanguagetaboosandreligion.SinceEnglisheuphemismsplayanimportantroleinsocialcommunication,theyworthcarefulandthoroughstudy.Thispaperwillmainlydealwiththeformation,classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms.

VariousmethodshavebeenusedtoformEnglisheuphemisms,includingphoneticdevices,spellingdevices,vocabularydevices,grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices.

ThepaperalsotriestoclassifyEnglisheuphemismsaccordingtothecontent.Englisheuphemismsarealmostemployedinallfieldsoflifesuchasinthefieldofdailylife,inthefieldofeducation,inthefieldoflaw,inthefieldofpolitics,andinthefieldofcommerceandindustry.

Fromthedaytheycameintobeing,Englisheuphemismsplaytheroleofsociallubricator.Withoutthem,theworldwillbefullofconflictsandthesocialorderwillbeinchaos.ThefunctionofEnglisheuphemismsisdiversified.Besidesevasion,Englisheuphemismsnowarealsousedforpoliteness,eleganceanddisguise.

[KeyWords]Englisheuphemism;formation;classification;socialfunction

【摘要】委婉語是人類語言中的一種普遍現(xiàn)象，其存在的歷史相當(dāng)悠久。任何事物的出現(xiàn)總有其原因，委婉語當(dāng)然也不例外。委婉語的出現(xiàn)是與語言禁忌息息相關(guān)的。英語委婉語在交際中起著十分重要的作用，因此值得深入的學(xué)習(xí)和研究。本文主要從英語委婉語的構(gòu)成方式、分類和社會(huì)功能來進(jìn)行闡述。英語委婉語的構(gòu)成方式多種多樣包括語音手段、語法手段、修辭手段等。論文還試圖根據(jù)英語委婉語的內(nèi)容對(duì)其應(yīng)用范圍進(jìn)行歸類。英語委婉語涉及生活的方方面面，既有日常生活中的委婉語又有教育和法律委婉語以及政治委婉語與商業(yè)和工業(yè)領(lǐng)域委婉語。從其誕生之日起，英語委婉語就肩負(fù)著社會(huì)潤滑劑這項(xiàng)重任?？梢灶A(yù)見如果沒有委婉語人際交往中將會(huì)增加許多摩擦和矛盾。英語委婉語具有多樣化的功能。除了避諱，它還具有禮貌、求雅、掩飾等功能。

【關(guān)鍵字】英語委婉語;構(gòu)成方式;分類;社會(huì)功能

1.Introduction

Euphemismshaveexistedforalongtime.Theword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreekword“Euphemia”.Theprefix“eu-”means“good”,thestem“pheme”means“speech”or“saying”.Manypeoplehavedefinedeuphemism.Herearesomeofthedefinitions.

(1)“(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones.”[1]

(2)“apolitewordorexpressionthatyouuseinsteadofamoredirectonetoavoidshockingorupsettingsomeone.”[2]

(3)“alessdirectwordusedinsteadofonethatisharshorbluntwhenreferringtosomethingunpleasantorembarrassing.”[3]

(4)“Substitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone;Expressionthussubstituted.”[4]

(5)“apolitewordorexpressionthatpeopleusetotalkaboutsomethingunpleasantorembarrassing,suchasdeathandsex.”[5]

(6)“Aeuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferredexpression,inordertoavoidpossiblelossofface:Eitherone’sownfaceor,throughgivingoffence,thatoftheaudience,orofsomethirdparty.”[6]

Justastheabovedefinitionsstate,someharsh,blunt,unpleasantoroffensivethingsinlifeshouldnotbestateddirectlyandtruthfullyincertainoccasions.Underthesecircumstances,somebetter-soundingnamesshouldbeused.Euphemismisapartofhumanlanguageaswellasapsychologicalandculturalphenomenonofdifferentnations.TheusageofEnglisheuphemismreflectsethicsandbehavioralcodeofpeopleinEnglish-speakingcountries.Fromthedayitcameintobeing,euphemismfunctionsasthelubricatorofcommunication.Thusitenablespeopletoliveinharmonyandmakesconversationssmoothandsuccessful.

Thefollowingpartsholdadiscussionontheorigin,formation,classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms.

2.TheoriginofEnglisheuphemisms

“Euphemismisthelinguisticreflectionofsocialpsychologyandaproductofsocialandculturalenvironment.”[7]“Inwesternnations,theusageofeuphemismsinearlytimesoriginatedfromreligionoradmiresanddreadofgods.”[8]Itsearlieremergencehadacloserelationtolanguagetaboosandreligion.

Inancientsociety,asthelevelofproductivityandsciencewasverylow,peoplefailedtoexplaintheessenceofsomenaturalphenomenasuchaslighteningandthunder.Theycametobelievethatthereweresomesupernaturalpowers,ortheexistenceofdevilsandgodsthatcontrolledtheirlivesandeventhewholeworld.Theydarednottomentionthenamesofthedevilsandgodsdirectly,justastheidiomgoes“Speakofthedevilandheappears.”Thus,languagetabooscameintobeing.Tofindasolutiontothisproblem,peopleusedothernamesthatis,euphemismstosubstitutethenamesofthosethingstheyfearedincircumstancesthattheyhadtospeakofthem.Becauseoftheusageofeuphemisms,peoplefeltthattheyweresomewhatdistantfromwhattheywereafraidofandtheirsafety,happiness,healthandgoodluckwereguaranteed.Thoughitisaratheroldreligiouscustom,itstillexertsastronginfluenceonmodernwesternnations.

Asweallknow,themajorityofthepopulationofEnglish-speakingcountriesbelievesinGodconsciouslyorunconsciously,andtheythinkthatGodexistseverywhereandhasunlimitedpower.WordsrelatedtoGodandreligioncanonlybeusedinreligiousceremonies.SincethenameofGodisregardedastheavatarofGoditself,peopleusuallyuse“theLord”toreplaceit.Besides,Jesusiseuphemizedas“Gee”,“jeepers”,“jiminy”,“Cricket”or“Criminet”;and“thedeuce”,“thedickens”or“OldNick”substitutes“theDevil”.

3.TheformationofEnglisheuphemisms

VariousdevicesareemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.

3.1Phoneticdevices

PhoneticdistortionisacommonmeanstoformEnglisheuphemism.Forexample,Peopleuse“Gad”,“Goodness”,“Gosh”,and“Golly”toreplace“God”anduse“cripes”toreplace“Christ”inordertoshowrespect.Assonanceisanotherimportantmeanstoformeuphemisms.Forexample,“‘a(chǎn)coffinshop’iseuphemizedas‘a(chǎn)coffeeshop’,for‘coffin’and‘coffee’havesimilarityinsound.”[9]RhymingslangisalsoemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.Slangisveryinformalandhaslocalcolor.Itwasoriginallyusedbyworkingpeople.Now,someslangwordshavebeenacceptedinStandardEnglishandusedaseuphemisms.Forexample,“Bristolcities”isfor“breasts”;“graspandgrunt”isrhymingslangfor“cunt”and“tealeaf”isfor“thief”.

3.2Spellingdevices

3.2.1Abbreviations

Someeuphemismsareabbreviations.Forexample,“VD”isfor“venerealdisease”;“BO”isfor“bodyodor”;“BM”substitutes“bowelmovement”;“WC”substitutes“watercloset”;“OD”replaces“totakeanoverdose”,etc.

3.2.2Reinterpretationofinitials

ReinterpretationofinitialsisalsousedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.Forexample,“hotandcold”isaroundaboutexpressionfor“heroinandcocaine”.“hot”and“heroin”havethesameinitial“h”and“cold”and“cocaine”havethesameinitial“c”,but“hotandcold”soundslessaccurateandindirect.

3.3vocabularydevices

3.3.1Loanwords

Borrowingistheuseofloanwordsinordertoavoidtaboos.“Itisthoughtthatloanwordshavefewnegativemeaningandsensitiveassociations,sothattheysoundmoreneutralandpleasant.”[10]

Hereisalistofdirectexpressionsandtheirrespectiveeuphemisms.

“EnglishFrenchLatin

smellscent

stinkodor

fatrotund

sick/illindisposed

lieprevaricate

spitexpectorate

sweatperspire”[11]

Asweallknow,in43A.D.RomanEmpireconqueredEnglandandbroughtLatintoEnglandandLatinbecameofficiallanguageinEngland.AftertheNormanConquestin1066,FrenchbecamethegovernmentallanguageinEngland.ButFrenchandLatinwereonlyspokenbytheupperclasses,andamongthelowclassesEnglishwasspoken.Theupperclassesheldtheviewthatwordsusedbythemselvesweresuperiortothoseusedbythelowclasses.SotheyusedFrenchorLatinwordstoreplaceunpleasantEnglishwords.LaterpeopleacceptedtheviewthatFrenchandLatinwordsaremoreeuphemisticthanEnglishwords.

3.3.2Usingupliftingwords

UpliftingwordscanmakeonefeelhappierormorehopefulsotheyareusedquitefrequentlyinmodernEnglishasanimportantmeanstoeuphemizethingsrelatedtothehumblesocialclass.Themainpurposeofusingtheseeuphemismsistomakemenialjobssounddecent.Forexample,peoplereplace“waiters”or“waitresses”by“thediningroomattendants”,“l(fā)andscapeworker”by“l(fā)andscapearchitect”,“garbageman”by“sanitaryengineer”,andsubstitute“butcher”with“meattechnologist”.Generallyspeaking,informingeuphemismtheruleofusingwordsthatareeasyontheearsisobservedforthepurposeofconsolation.Throughusingupliftingwords,theembarrassingfactsareembellishedandnolongerunpleasant.

33.3Usingvaguewordsorexpressions

Inmodernwesterncountries,vaguewordsorexpressionsareusedinalmostallthefields.“Ifaneighboringgirlhasachildbeforemarriage,peoplewillcommentlikethis:‘Shehasanaccident.’Theword‘a(chǎn)ccident’isveryvague.Ifapersoncameacrossadisasteranddied,peoplewillalsouse‘a(chǎn)ccident’todescribehissituation.Theymaysay:‘Hehasmetwithanaccident.’”[12]Inschoolastudentmaysaytoateacher:“Sorry!Ihavetodomybusiness”whenhewantstogotothewashingroom.Besides,“amanofbadtaste”iscalled“amanofdoubtfultaste”;and“homosexual”isreplacedby“queer”.“Itisnowonderthateuphemismisnamedweaselwords.”[13]

3.3.4Usingcountrynames

Namesofsomecountriesareusedtosubstituteuncomfortablethings.Forexample,“Dutchcourage”replaces“weakcourage”,thatis,couragethatcomesfromdrinkingalcohol;and“Dutchuncle”isfor“unpleasantrelative”.WeallknowthattherewasawarbetweenBritainandDutchin17thcentury.Fromthenon,hatredexistedamongpeopleinthesetwonations.AndEnglishmenusedeverychancetomakejokeofDutch.BesidesDutch,Franceisalsousedtoformeuphemismslike“Frenchnovels”for“pornnovels”and“Frenchletters”for“condom”.Andpeopleuse“Frenchdevices/methods”orsimply“Frenchise”toreplacemethodsofbirthcontrol.PeopleinBritainbanterFrenchbecausetheywereonceruledbyit.

3.4Grammaticaldevices

Moreandmorelinguistsbecometonoticeeuphemismsformedthroughgrammaticaldevices.Sucheuphemismsareusedbyspeakerswithacertainpurpose.Onlythroughthecontext,canlistenersfigureoutspeakers’specialintention.

3.4.1Usingthepasttense

InwrittenEnglishthepasttenseismostlyusedtoexpressanactionorafacthappenedinacertainpointoftimeinthepast.ButinoralEnglish,thepasttensecanreplacethepresenttensetomakethemeaningofthesentencessoundsmorepoliteandmild.

(1)Doyouwantmetohelpyou?

(2)Didyouwantmetohelpyou?

(3)Iwonderifyoucandomeafavor.

(4)Iwonderedifyoucoulddomeafavor.

Sentences(1)and(3)usethepresenttenseandsentences(2)and(4)usethepasttense,andtheyareallgrammaticallyright.Butsentences(2)and(4)soundmorepleasant,fortheymeanthatwhatthespeakerssayhappenedinthepast,sothelistenerswillnotfeelembarrassediftheyhavedifferentanswersfromthespeakers’atthetimebeing.

(5)Wouldn’titbebetterforustostartoffalittleearliertomorrow?

(6)ThisissomethingIshouldadviseyounottodo.

Byusingthepasttenseofmodelauxiliaryverbs,theabovesentencesputforwardapoliteproposalinsteadofaharshone.

3.4.2Usingthesubjunctivemood

ThesubjunctivemoodinEnglishismainlyusedtoexpressdoubt,wishes,orpossibility.WhenusedinspokenEnglish,onecanachieveabettercommunicationeffectthanwithindicativemoodorimperativemood.Herearesomeexamples:

(7)IfIwereyou,Iwouldnotgothere.

(8)Ifhebefoundguilty,hismembershipwouldbesuspended.

(9)Itisessentialthatherecognizehisfault.

3.4.3Usingthepassivevoice

InEnglish,thepassivevoiceisusedtoavoidmentioningthedoer,especiallywhenexpressingcriticism.Herearetwoexamples:

(10)Itisgenerallyconsiderednotacceptabletoactthatway.

(11)Thisbookwasnotwellwritten.

Insentence(10),thepassivevoiceistactfullyusednottoindicatewhoactsthatway.Insentence(11),thespeakerdoesnotmentionwhoisthewriterinordernottohurtthepersonconcerned.

3.4.4Usingparentheses

Parenthesesarealsousedtoformeuphemisms.Andaparenthesiscanbeaword,aphraseorasentence,suchas,“Ithink”,“Iguess”,“I’mafraid”,“Isuppose”,“Iwonder”,“itseems”,and“itissaid”.Theyareusedtomakeastatementlessdirectorlessstrong.Herearesomeexamples:

(12)Theman,itseems,istheonewholivesnextdoortoTim.

(13)This,Ithink,isaverygoodwaytoimproveyourEnglishstudy.

With“itseems”and“Ithink”thetwosentencessoundmoremodestandlessrighteous.

3.4.5Using“please”

Outofkindnessandpoliteness,theword“please”isusedasaeuphemisticdevice.Examples:

(14)Nophotos,please.

(15)Closethedoor,please.

(16)Children,please!Iamtryingtowork.

Insentence(14),“please”isemployedonasigntosaythatsomethingisnotallowedpolitely.Sentence(15)uses“please”asapolitewayofaskingsomebodytodosomething.Sentence(16)employs“please”asamildcriticism,toasksomebodytostopbehavingbadly.

3.4.6Usingtagquestions

Aphrasesuchas“isn’tit?”,“won’tit”,or“doesn’tshe”isaddedtotheendofasentencetomakeitaquestionortoaskyoutoagreewiththeabovestatementpolitely.Examples:

(17)Let’sgofishingthisafternoon,shallwe?

(18)Turnonthelightforme,willyou?

3.5Rhetoricaldevices

Someeuphemismsareinventedbyrhetoricalmeansasfollows.

3.5.1Usingmetaphor

InEnglish,manyeuphemismsthemselvesarevividandpopularmetaphors,soitisnecessarytofindoutwhat“metaphor”means.Ametaphoremploysawordoraphrasetoindicatesomethingdifferentfromtheliteralmeaning.Peopleseldomsay“hedied”but“hewenttosleepforever”or“hewenttohislonghome”.Here,“gotosleepforever”and“gotoone’slonghome”arebothmetaphorsandeuphemisms.Moreexamplesare:

(19)HeisHamlet.

(20)Hisplaniscastleintheair.

(21)JohniscarryingcoalstoNewcastle.

Sentence(19)means“heisindecisive”,sentence(20)means“hisplanisdaydream”,andsentence(21)hasthesamemeaningwith“Johniswastingtimeandenergy”.Euphemismscreatedbythiswayalsoappearinliteraryworks.Hereisanexample:

(22)“thereforeitisbettertobeaguestofthelaw,whichthoughconductedbyrules,doesnotinterferetoowithagentleman’sprivateaffairs.”[14]

Insentence(22),“tobeaguestofthelaw”meansto“beinprison”,buttheformerisapleasantsubstitution.Soapywouldratherspendhiswintersinprisonthangetsomehelpfromcharityorganizations,forifhewantstogethelpfromcharities,hisprivateaffairswillbeinterfered.

3.5.2Usingunderstatement

Forthesakeofpolitenessandpleasantness,peopleoftenuseanotherformationcalledunderstatement,which,isnottostatesomethingfullyoradequately.Understatement,asthewordsuggests,is“astatementthatisnotstrongenoughtoexpresshowgood,bad,impressiveetcsomethingreallyis.”[15]“Understatementachievesitseffectofemphasizingafactbydeliberatelyunderstatingit.”[16]

“Understatementisusuallydividedintolitotesandmeiosis.Litotesisunderstatementbyusinganegativestatementinsteadofapositiveone”[17].Examples:

(23)Sheisveryugly.---Sheisnotparticularlygood-looking.

(24)Hewasquiterich.---Hewasamanofnomeanwealth.

Insentence(23),“notparticularlygood-looking”ismoreneutralandvaguethan“ugly”,sotheemploymentofthiseuphemismsuccessfullyavoidsannoyingthepersonconcerned.Sentence(24)hassomethingtodowithpersonalaffairs.Westernersdon’tlikeotherstotalkabouttheirprivateaffairs.Wealthbelongstoone’sprivacy,soitismorepolitetousearoundaboutwaytotalkaboutitwhenyouhaveto.

“Meiosisismerelyunderstatementwithouttheuseofnegatives”[18].Examples:

(25)Herdaughterisinprison.---Herdaughterlivesunderthegovernment’sexpense.

(26)Ican’tpromise.---Sorry,thisisinfactmorethanIcanpromise.

“prison”insentence(25)isanunpleasantword.Generalspeaking,peoplearesensitivetotheword“prison”ifoneisinprison,youhadbetteravoidmentioning“prison”infrontofhisrelatives.Sentence(26)isarefusal.Whenyourefusesomeone,indirectwordswillgetabetterresult,fortheywillnotmakehimloseface.

Byusingunderstatements,thespeakersdonotseemtobesocrueltootherswhomtheyspeaksomethingupsettingto.

3.5.3Usingmetonymy

MetonymyisanotherveryusefulrhetoricalmeanstoformEnglisheuphemisms.Itusesthenameofonethingtosubstitutethatofanother.Byusingit,someunpleasantexpressionscanbeavoided.Metonymycanbefurtherdividedintothefollowing.

(ⅰ)Substitutingthetypicalcharacteristicsofapersonfortheperson

Forexample,

(27)Grayhairsshouldberespected.

Intheabovesentence,“Grayhairs”isemployedtoreplace“oldpeople”,forgrayhairisoneofthetypicalcharacteristicsofoldpeople.Since“old”isatabooinEnglish-speakingcountriespeopleexpressitwitheuphemisticwords.

(ⅱ)Substitutingthewholeforthepart

Forexample,

(28)Shehasagoodchest.

Insentence(28),“chest”means“breast”.Peopleconsider“breast”asanungracefulword,sotheyuseroundaboutwaytomentionit.

(ⅲ)Substitutingthetoolsfortheactionorthething

Forexample,

(29)DuringtheWorldWarⅡHitlerattendedtocarryfireandswordintoEverypartoftheworld.

Insentence(29),“fireandsword”hasthesamemeaningwith“war”.Inwesterners’eyes,fireisthesymbolofhopeandswordisthesymbolofjustice.Aswarmakespeoplethinkofmisery,theyusuallydon’tmentionitdirectly.Here,“fireandsword”isusedtocreateasenseofsatire.

(30)Sellingcardsisforbidden.

“cards”insentence(30)means“drugs”.“drug”isasensitivewordasithassomethingtodowithcrimeanddecadence,soitisofteneuphemized.Peopleuse“card”toreferto“drug”forthereasonthatdrugdealersputdisposabledrugsintofoldingpostcardsandsendthemtodrugaddicts.

(ⅳ)Substitutingthenameofaplacefortheperson

Forexample,

(31)Tomissuccessfulinhiscareerbuthewasabrostal.

“Brostal”intheabovesentencemeans“youngcriminal”.“Brostal”isthenameofalocalityinBritain.Becausethefamousyoungcriminalscenterislocatedthere,peopleusethenameofittoreplace“youngcriminal”.

4.CalcificationofEnglisheuphemisms

Englisheuphemismsinvolvesinalmosteveryfieldoflife.Thispapertriestoclassifythemaccordingtothecontent.

4.1Inthefieldofdailylife

4.1.1Aboutoldage

Itisnaturalforpeopletoexperienceadult,middleage,oldageanddeath.Buttowesterners,oldagemeansworthlessandtheoldwillbelookeddownuponorevendeserted.Sonooneadmitsthatheisold.Peopledreadaboutoldagesomuchthattheyseetheword“old”asataboo.Thus,theytrytheirbesttoborrowotherwordstoexpressit,e.g.:“theadvancedinage”,“themature”,“thelongerliving”,“seasonedman”,“seniorcitizens”,etc.Inshort,westernnationshave“seniorcitizens”or“thelongerlived”butno“oldage”.

4.1.2Aboutunemploymentandpoverty

Unemploymentisstillabigsocialprobleminwesterncountries.Itissodreadedthatitalmostmakespeoplebecomeshiveringwhentheythinkofit,particularlyduringperiodsofeconomiccrisis.Andonceyouareoutofwork,povertyistheinevitableresult.Wholikestoliveapoorlife?Thus,unemploymenthasbecomeahottopicinpoliticalcompetition.Nearlyeverycandidatelooksonthelowunemploymentrateasoneofhisorhertrumpstowin.Moreandmorepeoplegetusedtobeconsideratewhentheywanttomentionunemploymentandpoverty.Asaresult,manyvagueexpressionsorwordsarecreatedtoreplacethem.Forexample,whenthebosswantedtodismissJohn,hewas“l(fā)aidoff”,“easedout”or“giventhewalkingticket”andhebecamea“l(fā)ay-offworker”.Atfirsthewas“outofpocket”and“l(fā)ivedinreducedcircumstances(penniless)”,thenhe“l(fā)ivedindifficulties(indebt)”,laterhehadnochoicebutto“moveintoasub-standardhousing(slums)”.Besides,“Thepoor”is“thehave-nots”,“theunderprivileged”or“thedisadvantaged”.Andtherearenopoorcountriesintheworldfortheyarereplacedby“developingnations”or“emergingnations”.Whentheseeuphemismsareheardfromthepeople,theyareusedtosoftenharshreality,butwhengovernmentsusethem,theyarechangedintodeceivingwords.

4.1.3Aboutmenialjobsandprofessions

Therearemanypeoplewhoundertakehumblejobsthatarelookeddownuponbythepublic.Forthesakeofpoliteness,peopleuseupgradingeuphemismsto“uplift”thesejobsbyname,notbystatus.Examples:

(32)Maryalwaysturnstoherunclewhenthereissomethingwrongwithhershoesforheisashoerebuilder.

(33)Supervisorsarestrictandmeantoworkers.

(34)Themainworkoftreesurgeonsistomakegoodoftrees.

(35)Weneedapipeengineerbecausethepipeinourkitchenisdripping.

Intheabovesentences,“cobbler”,“foremen”,“treetrimmers”and“plumber”arereplacedrespectivelyby“shoerebuilder”,“supervisors”,“treesurgeons”and“pipeengineer”.And“hairdresser”issubstitutedby“beauticianorhairstylist”;“floor-sweeper”isreplacedby“custodianengineer”;“hiregirl”isspokenas“domesticengineer”;“rat-catcher”issubstitutedby“pestcontroloperator”;“washwoman”isreplacedby“clothesrefresher”,andsoon.Allthesewordsareusedforthesamepurpose:toavoidoffendingpeoplewithhumblejobs.Theusageofoccupationaleuphemismsreflectsasenseofinferiorityaswellasastrivingfor“betterthings”.

4.1.4Aboutmenstruation

Thedesiretoescapefromunpleasantfeelingsbringsoutmanyeuphemismsonexcretionofwomen.Menstruationeuphemismisoneofthem.Suchas“tohaveavisitor”;“myfriendhascome”;andsoon.Alloftheseeuphemismsareusedtoavoidthefeelingofembarrassmentanddistaste.

4.2Inthefieldofeducation

Teachershavetomakecommentsonstudents.Whentheywanttopointoutshortcomingsorbadbehaviorofstudents,theyoftenuseroundaboutwaysinordernottohurtstudentsandtheirparents.Thefollowingaresomemostlyusedeuphemismsinthisfieldandtheirrealmeanings.

“(36)Thestudentisobtuse.---Thestudentisabitslowforhisage.Thestudentsseemstobementallyretarded.

(37)Hehasfailed(flunked)amajorcourse.---I’msorrytofindhimanunderachieverforamajorsubject.

(38)Thestudentislazy.---Thestudentneedstoraisehisambitionabit.I’mafraidthestudenthastoexerthimselfinhisstudy.Heissuretogofarifhecanusehisresourcesfully.He’llgosomewhereifheishighlymotivated.

(39)Thestudentisnoisy.---Heneedstodevelopquieterhabitsofcommunication.

(40)Thestudentisabully.---Heneedshelpinlearningtouseisleadershipqualitiesdemocratically

(41)Helies.---Hehasdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenimaginaryandfactualinformation.

(42)Thestudentcheats.---Heneedshelpinlearningtorespectthepropertyrightofothers.

(43)Thestudentmustmendhisway.–Heneedstobebroughtbackintothemainstream.”[19]

4.3Inthefieldoflaw

Sincecrimesaretabooedinmanysocialsituations,peoplecreatealargenumberofeuphemismstoreplacethem.Hereisalistofcrimesandtheircorrespondingeuphemisms.

CrimesEuphemisms

crooked,fraudulentfree-wheeling

thieffivefingers,adip,afork

violenceaction

murdertakecareof

prostitutebrass,daughterofeve

heroinBigHarry

opiumblackstuff

4.4Inthefieldofpolitics

Politicsisoneofthefertilefieldsforthegrowthofeuphemisms.Witheuphemisms,politiciansalwaysjustifytheiractionsandbeautifytheharshrealitiesforsomecertainpurposes.Onlywhenthepublicbelievesthatthesocietyundertheirleadhasbecomebetter,cantheirpoliticallifesurvives.Thelistofsuchkindofeuphemismsisendless,e.g.:“economiccrisis”isreplacedby“depression”or“recession”;“strike”issaidtobe“industrialaction”;“aggression”isspokenas“preemptiveaction”,“policeaction”or“anti-terroristaction”;“civiliancasualties”issubstitutedby“collateraldamage”;“killingofcitizens”iseuphemizedas“wastingtheenemy”;“concentrationcamps”isreplacedby“strategicvillagesorhamlets”;“retreat”issaidtobe“strategicwithdrawal”;“groundwar”isspokenas“groundoperation”;etc.“Thiskindofeuphemismsisusedtocoverupthetruenatureofsomepoliticalevents,misleadingthepublicwithpleasantandsweetwords.”[20]

4.5Inthefieldofcommerceandindustry

Euphemismscanalsobeseenintheareaofcommerceandindustry.Example:

(44)Johnwasoutofgameandhejumpedfromthe20thfloorofabuildingoutofdesperation.

(45)Sheisanegativesaverforshealwaysbuyssomethingexpensivebutunnecessarysoshehastoborrowmoneyfromothersattheendofeachmonth.

Intheabovesentences,“bankrupt”and“overspender”aresubstitutedby“outofgame”and“negativesaver”.

Somecompaniesarenotlargeenoughtobecalledlargecompanies,buttheydon’twanttouse“fairlylarge”todescribethemselvesforthesenseofdignity.So“substantial”isemployedtoreplace“fairlylarge”,intheeuphemisticexpression“asubstantialandwell-diversifiedgroupcompanies”.Inthisfield,“small”isregardedasataboowordtoo,sopeopleusemanynice-soundingwordstosubstituteit.InEurope“acompact”isequalto“asmallcar”.And“asubcompact”means“atypeofverysmallandinexpensivecar”.Asitisinexpensive,itisattractivetopeople.Sometimes“small”isreplacedby“intimate”or“l(fā)imited”.Aseverybodyknows,“anintimategathering”isusually“asmallgathering”.“cheap”isanothertabooword.Peopledon’tliketousetheword“cheap”.Instead,theyuseitseuphemisms,suchas“l(fā)ow-cost”,“realisticallypriced”,or“economypriced”.Inordertoattractcustomers,shopkeepersuse“premium-priced”todescribe“expensive”.So,“premium-pricedScotches”infactis“themostexpensiveScotches”.

5.ThesocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms

5.1Forevasion

Sincedeathisinevitable,ithasbecomethefearofallhumanbeing.Inearlytime,peopleseldommentioneddeathdirectlybecausetheyweresuperstitiousaboutit.Theybelievedthatdeathwasadevilthatcanhearhuman’svoice.Soifyouspeakofit,itwillappear.Thus,thereweremanyeuphemismsabouttheword“die”suchas“breatheone’slast”and“jointhemajority”.

Diseaseisanotherfearofman.Inprimitivesociety,asthelevelofmedicinewasverylow,peoplescarcelysurvivedwhentheygotsick.Tothem,diseasewasasdreadfulasdeath.Sotheydidn’tspeakitdirectlyeither.Inmodernsociety,althoughmanydiseasescanbecured,peoplearestillafraidofthem.Ontheonehand,thepatientsuffersalotfromit;ontheotherhand,theexpenseisaheavyburdentothefamilyespeciallythepoor.Thecommonresultisthatthepatientregainshishealthbutthewholefamilyhastoliveapoorlifeformanyyearsorevenalltheirlives.Thus,peopleusuallyuseeuphemisticwordswhentheymentionthenamesofdisease.Forexample,the“BigC”replaces“cancer”and“AIDS”substitutes“acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome”.

InChinesepeople’eyes,westernersarequiteopen-minded.Butthisdoesnotmeanthattheytalkaboutallthewordsrelatedtosexfreely.“Exceptforsomemedicaltermsinaspecialsituation,theymayuseeuphemisticwordstotalkaboutit”[21].Suchas,“tohavesex”and“tomakelove”.Wordsaboutthebirtharealsoseldommentioneddirectlybecausetheymakepeoplethinkofsex.Whenawomanispregnant,sheisdescribedas“tohaveonewatermelononthevine”;“inaparticularcondition”;“tohaveoneontheway”,etc.

5.2Forpoliteness

ThePursuitofbeautyisthenatureofhumanbeing.Beautyhelpsonefeelconfidentwhileuglinessmakesonehaveasenseofinferiority.Soitisimpoliteevenoffensivetosaysomeoneisuglydirectly.Whenpeoplewanttoexpresssomeoneisugly,theyusuallysay“Heisplainlooking”or“Sheisnotpretty”,etc.Withtheimprovementoflivingstandard,moreandmorepeoplehaveaweightproblem.Variousproductsoflosingweightfloodintothemarketforbeingtoofatisnotonlyaproblemofappearancebutalsoaproblemofhealth.Obesitybringsinconvenienceaswellastheriskofmanydiseases.Therefore,therearealotofeuphemismsaboutfatnesslike“plump”,“chubby”or“tubby”,etc.“Skinny”isanotherunpleasantword.Noonelikestobedescribedas“skinny”,buttheywillbereallypleasedwhentheyhearothersdescribethemas“slim”or“slender”.

Thedisabledneedhelpandprotectionbuttheyaresensitive,too.Sopeoplehavetochoosetheirwordscarefullywhentheytalkaboutthem.Manyeuphemisticwordsaredesignedtoavoidmentioningthehandicapped.“deaf”isreplacedby“hardofhearing”;“cripple”iseuphemizedas“theinconvenienced”,andsoon..

5.3Forelegance

Excrementisadisgustingtopicinpoliteconversation.Theyareavoidedbymeansofeuphemisms.“Defecation”referstooneofthesickestelementsintheworld.Whenyougotoseeadoctorforastomachupset,thedoctorwillaskyou,“Howisyourbowelmovement?”Andifhewantstohaveafurtherexamination,hewillneedaspecimenofyourmanure.Ifsomeoneroundshisthumbandindexfingeruptoformtheletter“C”withotherfingersstretchingout,hewantstogotoW.C.Thereareotherexpressionshavingthesamemeaning,like“tosingasong”,“toseethemoon”,“answerthenature’scall”,“doone’sbusiness”orsimply“Excuseme”.

Somepartsofbodyareassociatedwithsex,sotheyareavoidedbeingsaiddirectly.Thisgeneratesalargenumberofeuphemisms.“bigbroweyes”,“bust”or“coconuts”referstofemale’sbreasts;“naturals”,“affair”or“tails”suggestsexorgansofhumanbeing,etc.Likepartsofbody,nakednessisataboooutofembarrassmentorshame.AccordingtotheBible,AdamandEveatethewisefruit,foundthemselvesnakedandfeltveryashamed.TheyhidthemselvesbehindthebushwhentheLordcametoseethem.Thentheyusedfigleavestocoverimportantpartsoftheirbodies.Thisstorydemonstratesthat“nakedness”hasbeenatabooforalongtime.Therearemanyeuphemisticwordsaboutnakedness,like“altogether”and“inone’sbirthdaysuit”.Onceamanwasbathingwithoutlockinghisdoor,oneofhisfriendsrushedintohisroomforemergencyandfoundhewasnaked.Theybothfeltembarrassed.Thenthemanwithnothingonsaid,“YouaretheonebesidesmymotherwhohasseenIaminmybirthdaysuit”.Bothofthemimmediatelyburstintolaughter.

5.4Fordisguise

Everythinghasmeritsanddemerits,andeuphemismisnottheexception.“Oneofthecharacteristicsofeuphemismsisitsvagueness.”[22]Sotheyareemployedtoconcealharshandunpleasantthingsincommunications,creatingaharmonyenvironment.Butitisthisspecialfeaturethatcreateschancesforpoliticiansandbusinessmentomakeuseofeuphemismstoachievetheirselfishgoals.

Politiciansarefamousfortheirabilitytoplaywords.Theycaneventurnfactsupsidedown.Theytrytheirefforttopersuadepeoplethattheyliveabetterlifeundertheirleadershiptherebytogetsupportandholdtheirpositions.Oneoftheeffectivemethodstheyuseistheusageofeuphemisms.Therefore,manyeuphemismsaboutpoliticscanbeseen.Forexample,“l(fā)ogisticalstrikes”isfor“bombingattacks”;“defoliation”isfor“destroyingcrops”,andsoon.

Ifyouwanttosurvivethesharpcommercialcompetition,youhavetokeepalertandattractcustomers,thesourcesofbenefits,bymeansofadvertisements.Euphemismisacommonbutsuccessfulwayusedincommercialadvertisements,foritseemsthateverybodypreferscomplimentsandpraisetoharshandupsettingtruth.Airlinecompaniesareexpertsinusingeuphemisms.Theycallthefirst-class“deluxeclass”,thesecond-classbecomes“first-class”andthethird-classis“economicclass”,“businessclass”or“touristclass”.Inthiscase,passengersinthethird-classwillnotfeelinferioranddon’tlosetheirfaceswhentheytellotherstheytakethe“economicclass”,andpassengersinotherclassesareupliftedatthesametime.

Euphemismthatfunctionsasdisguiseisakindofdeceitfortheycoverupthefactofmatters.

6.Conclusion

Theemergenceofeuphemismsiscloselyrelatedtolanguagetaboosandreligion.Euphemismsareformedthroughvariousdeviceslikephoneticdevices,spellingdevices,vocabularydevices,grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices.Euphemismsarenowusedinalmostallfieldsoflifesuchasindailylife,inthefieldofeducation,etc.Theyperformthefunctionofevasionwhentheyareusedtoreplacetaboos.Besidesevasion,theyareemployedforpoliteness,eleganceanddisguise.Sinceeuphemismsplayanimportantroleinlanguage,itisagoodwayforEnglishlearnerstoimprovetheirEnglishstudybylearningandemployingEnglisheuphemisms.

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