導(dǎo)語(yǔ)：反語(yǔ)幽默屬性功能研究一文來(lái)源于網(wǎng)友上傳，不代表本站觀點(diǎn)，若需要原創(chuàng)文章可咨詢客服老師，歡迎參考。

[Abstract]Verbalirony,asawidelyusedfigureofspeech,hasreceivedconsiderableattentionfromcognitivepsychologistsandlinguists.Thetraditionalstudyofverbalironyfromrhetoricalandaestheticalapproacheshasbeenshiftedtocurrentcognitiveandpragmaticinvestigation.Inthispaper,focuswillbelaiduponthehumorfeatureofverbalironyfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics.First,throughthecomparisonofdifferentkindsofdefinitionsofirony,ageneralideaaboutwhatisironyisestablished.Then,thispaperexaminestheCooperativePrinciple(CPforshort)ofAmericanlinguistGricewhichputforwardsthatironyactsasaviolationofCP.Lastbutnottheleast,withthehelpofthecomparisonofthepragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironyandChineseirony,thehumorfeatureofverbalironycanbewelldisplayed.InEnglish,ironycouldbeusedtostateone’snegativeattitudetosomething.Itcouldbeusedasameanstosatirize,anapproachtopoliteness,anapproachtohumor.Chineseironycanbeclassifiedintofivetypesfromtheperspectiveofpragmaticfunctionsasfollows:ironyforcommendationandderogation,ironyforsatire,ironyforfun,ironyforaffectionandironyforemphasis.Thepragmaticfunctionsofironyinbothlanguagesaresimilar.

[KeyWords]verbalirony;pragmaticfunction;humor;EnglishandChineseironies

【摘要】反語(yǔ)作為一種普遍使用的修辭格，引起了認(rèn)知心理學(xué)家和語(yǔ)言學(xué)家的關(guān)注。反語(yǔ)研究的角度從傳統(tǒng)的修辭學(xué)和美學(xué)轉(zhuǎn)向了認(rèn)知心理學(xué)和語(yǔ)用學(xué)的探究。本文首先從定義和分類(lèi)上，對(duì)反語(yǔ)進(jìn)行認(rèn)知層面上的歸納總結(jié)。其次，基于語(yǔ)用學(xué)角度分析了反語(yǔ)與合作原則和禮貌原則的聯(lián)系。反語(yǔ)違反合作原則主要體現(xiàn)在對(duì)質(zhì)量準(zhǔn)則的違反上。反語(yǔ)作為一種間接言語(yǔ)，成為禮貌的一種手段。反語(yǔ)原則獨(dú)立于禮貌原則之外，是對(duì)禮貌原則的一大補(bǔ)充。此外，反語(yǔ)是言語(yǔ)幽默的一種表現(xiàn)形式。英漢反語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)用功能大致相似，但也存在不少差異。文中對(duì)此異同進(jìn)行歸納總結(jié)，從而得知，反語(yǔ)的幽默屬性是其基本屬性，在其語(yǔ)用功能中也得到了很好的體現(xiàn)。

【關(guān)鍵詞】反語(yǔ)；語(yǔ)用功能；幽默；英漢反語(yǔ)

1.Introduction

Ironyisacommonlinguisticphenomenoninverbalcommunication.Recentyearshaveseenamushroomgrowthofdistinctlyangledtheorizationsinthisorientation,whichneverthelessexhibitstrongcomplementarity.Traditionally,ironyistreatedasafigureofspeechwhoseintendedmeaningistheoppositeofthatexpressedbythewordsuttered.Thestudyofironyinthiswaybelongstothatofrhetoric.AmericanlinguistGricetakesironyasoneofthosefiguresofspeechthatfloutstheCooperativePrinciple(CPforshort),especiallytheMaximofQuality.Ironyinterpretedunderthispragmaticmodelconveysthecontradictionofwhatisliterallysaid.LinguistsSperberandWilsontreatironyasanechoicmentionwhilelinguistCuddonstatesthat“Atitssimplest,verbalironyinvolvessayingwhatonedoesn’tmean.”[1]

Inthispaper,focuswillbelaiduponthehumorfeatureofverbalironyfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics.First,throughthecomparisonofdifferentkindsofdefinitionsofirony,ageneralideaaboutwhatisironyisestablished.Secondly,thispaperexaminesGriceanCooperativePrinciplewhichputforwardsthatironyactsasaviolationofCP.Thirdly,withthehelpofLeech’sideaofirony,thepragmaticfunctionofironycouldbebetterdisplayed.Finally,thelastpointisaboutthepragmaticfunctionsofbothEnglishironyandChineseirony.Inaword,ironyisonewaytoproducehumorinverbalcommunication.

2.Whatisirony

Itisdifficulttodefinethewordof“irony”whichcouldbeunderstoodinvariousways.Theexpansionofitsresearchareamaybethedirectcauseofthediversityofthedefinitionofirony.Thefollowingaresomedefinitionsofironyfromdictionaries.

2.1Dictionarydefinitionsofirony

1)Expressionofone’smeaningbysayingthedirectoppositeofone’sthoughtsinordertobeemphatic,amusing,sarcastic,etc.[2]

OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionary

2)Useofwordswhichareclearlyoppositetoone’smeaning,usuallyeitherinordertobeamusingortoshowannoyance(e.g.bysaying‘Whatcharmingbehaviour’whensomeonehasbeenrude.)[3]

LongmanDictionaryofEnglishLanguage&Culture(English-Chinese)

3)Ironyisaliterarytechniquethatachievestheeffectofsayingonethingandmeaninganotherthroughtheuseofhumorormildsarcasm.[4]

Webster’sNewWorldEncyclopedia

4)Theuseofwordstoexpresssomethingotherthanandespeciallytheoppositeoftheliteralmeaning.[5]

WebsterEnglishDictionary

5)Ironyisafigureofspeechthatachievesemphasisbysayingtheoppositeofwhatismeant,theintendedmeaningofthewordsbeingtheoppositeoftheirusualsense.Thisformofironyiscalledverbalirony,anddiffersfromthestylisticdeviceofdramaticirony.[6]

EnglishRhetoricalOptions

6)DefinitionofironyfromGrolierInternationalDictionary:

a).Anexpressionorutterancemarkedbysuchadeliberatecontrastbetweenapparentandintendedmeaning,forhumorousorrhetoricaleffect.

b).Incongruitybetweenwhatmightbeexpectedandwhatoccurs.[7]

Theabovedefinitions,althoughexplainedbydifferentexpertsfromdifferentangles,roughlydisplaythenatureofironyfromboththeformandfunction.Amongthesedefinitions,thebasicmeaningofironycouldbefoundas“sayingonethingbutmeaninganother.”Thebestdescriptionofirony,say,theGrolierInternationalDictionary,takesboththeformandfunctionofironyintoconsiderationandgivesusabetterpicture.However,allofthesedefinitionshavesomeshortcomings.First,noneofthemprovidesaneffectivewaytoidentifyironyfromnon-irony.Second,theybasicallyregardironyasatropeorafigureofspeechwhoseliteralandconnotativemeaningsaremutuallyopposedtoeachother.Thistraditionalunderstandinghasbeenunderchallengesbymodernresearch.

2.2Classificationofirony

Theclassificationofironyispresentedindifferentwaysbythosewhoworkonit.Boothidentifiesquiteanumberoftypes:tragicirony,comicirony,stableirony,unstableirony,dramaticirony,situationalirony,verbalirony,rhetoricalironysoonandsoforth.KreuzandRobertsdistinguishfourtypesofirony:Socraticirony,dramaticirony,ironyoffateandverbalirony.[8]

Ingeneral,ironyinvolvesacontradictionbetweenappearanceandreality.Ironyresultswherethereisadifferenceinpointofviewbetweenacharacterandthenarratororreader.Traditionally,therearefourmajortypesofirony:verbal,dramatic,situationalandcomic.

2.2.1Verbalirony

Verbalironyreferstospokenwordsonly.Verbalironyoccurswhenacharactersaysonething,butsuggestsorintendstheopposite.Thecontrastisbetweenwhatthespeakersaysandwhatheactuallymeans.Forexample,inJuliusCaesar,MarkAntonyrepeatsthewords“andBrutusisanhonorableman”inthefamous“Friends,Romans,Countrymen”speech.[9]MarkAntony’smeaning,however,isthatBrutusiscompletelydishonorablebecauseBrutus,Caesar’sbestfriend,joinedtheotherconspiratorsandplungedaknifeintoCaesar’schest.

Inthispaper,thediscussionislaiduponthistypeofirony,verbalirony.

2.2.2Dramaticirony

Dramaticironyinvolvesmorethanjustspokenwords.Dramaticironyoccurswhenthemeaningintendedbyacharacter’swordsoractionsisoppositeofthetruesituation.Thecontrastisbetweenwhatthecharactersays,thinks,ordoesandthetruesituation.Further,thecharactercannotseeorunderstandthecontrast,buttheaudienceorreadercan.Forexample,inOthello,dramaticironyoccurswhenOthelloreferstoIagoas“honestIago”.[10]UnknowntoOthello,IagoisavillainwhodeceiveshimintothinkingthatDesdemona(Othello’swife)hasbeenunfaithful.Forthis,Othellounjustlykillshiswife,believingthewholetimeinIago’shonesty.

Thedifferenceinexamplesforverbalanddramaticirony:AntonycallsBrutus“honorable”andknowsheisnothonorable,whileOthellocallsIago“honest”anddoesnotknowofIago’sdeceit.

2.2.3Situationalirony

Situationalironydefieslogicalcause/effectrelationshipsandjustifiableexpectations.Forexample,ifagreedymillionaireweretobuyalotteryticketandwinadditionalmillions,theironywouldbesituationalbecausesuchacircumstancecannotbeexplainedlogically.Suchacircumstanceseems“unfair”.Thissenseofbeing“unfair”or“unfortunate”isatrademarkofsituationalirony.Becausepeoplecannotexplaintheunfairness,itcausesthemtoquestionwhetherornotthewordmakessense.

2.2.4Comicirony(orIronyoffate)

Someironygoesbeyondbeingunfairandismorallytragic.SuchironyisoftensoseverethatitcausespeopletoquestionGodandseetheuniverseashostile.Forexample,ifanhonest,hardworking,andgenerouspersonbuysalotteryticketandwinstenmilliondollars,onlytodieinanautocrashtwodayslater,theironywouldreachtragicproportions.Whensituationalironyreachesthisscale,itisoftencalledcomicironyorironyoffate.Suchironytypicallysuggeststhatpeoplearepawnstomaliciousforces.

3.IronyandtheCooperativePrinciple

3.1TheCooperativePrinciple

“AmericanphilosopherH.P.Gricemadeanattempttoexplainthecourseofnaturalconversation,inwhichimpliedmessagesarefrequentlyinvolved.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

Theprinciplebreaksdownintoparticularmaximsthatsummarizeparticularassumptionsaboutconversation.DifferentpragamaticistsproposedifferentnumbersofthesemaximsbutasoriginallyproposedbyGrice,thePrinciplecontainedfoursetsofmaxims:

Themaximsofquantity

a).Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange)

b).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.

Themaximsofquality

Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue:

a).Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.

b).Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.

Themaximofrelation

Berelevant.

Themaximsofmanner

Beperspicuous:

a).Avoidobscurityofexpression.

b).Avoidambiguity.

c).Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).

d).Beorderly.”[11]

3.2IronyasviolationofCP

GriceclassifiesironyasanexampleofimplicatureandshowshowonecanaccountforironyasacaseoffloutingtheCooperativePrinciplebyviolatingthemaximofquality.

Examples:

(1)Thisdiligentstudentseldomreadsmorethananhourpermonth.[12]

Theintendedmeaningofthespeakeristhisisalazystudent.However,heusesanoppositeof“l(fā)azy”—diligent.Diligentishereusedtoproducesarcasm.

(2)A:Sorry,Mary.Icannotgiveyoualiftafterwork.Ihavetomeetafriendattheairport.

B:Thankyouverymuch.It’sverykindofyou.[13]

Inthisconversation,BdoesnotreallypraiseA.Heuses“It’sverykindofyou.”toshowhisdissatisfactioninfact.

(3)A:Johnsayshetopsusallatfootball.

B:Ilikehischeek.[14]

WhenBsaid,“Ilikehischeek.”,heinfringedthequalitymaximtotellalie.ItiseasilyinferredfromthecontextthatBusestheoppositeword“l(fā)ike”tomeanhistrulydislike.

(4)RoseandDavidmetanelegantwomanonthestreet.Theyappreciatedherfineactionuntilshesuddenlyspittedphlegmtothefloor.Underthissituationcomesthediscourseasfollows:

Rose:Sheisreallylovely,isn’tshe?

David:Shesureis.[15]

Rosetendedtouse“l(fā)ovely”tolaughattheelegantwoman’spooractionhere.

Theseinstancesareviolationsofthemaximoftruthbysayingsomethinghe/shedoesnotreallybelieve.Intheseironyacts,indirectnessseemslikeashieldwhichmasksagenuineintentconsideredriskybythespeakers.Theironicalutterancesnotonlyconveymessagesbutalsoconcealwhatthespeakersreallybearinmind.ThespeakersviolatetheCooperativePrincipleconsciouslytoexpresstheirrealmeaninginindirectway.Ironyhelpstomaketheutterancemuchmorehumor.

4.IronyandthePolitenessPrinciple

4.1ThePolitenessPrinciple

LeechthinksthatGrice’sCooperativePrincipleinitselfcannotexplainwhypeopleemployindirectnesswhileconveyingwhattheymean.Inaddition,differentsocietiesmayoperatemaximsindifferentways.TheremustbesomeapparentexceptionsinactualcommunicationthatCooperativePrinciplecannotexplain.ThereforeLeechproposestosupplementGrice’sCooperativePrinciplewiththePolitenessPrinciple(PPforshort).Thestrategiesaresummarizedbelow:

Tact:

a).Minimizecosttoother.

b).Maximizebenefittoother.

Generosity:

a).Minimizebenefittoself.

b).Maximizecosttoself.

Approbation:

a).Minimizedispraiseofother.

b).Maximizepraiseofother.

Modesty:

a).Minimizepraiseofself.

b).Maximizedispraiseofself.

Agreement:

a).Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother.

b).Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandother.

Sympathy:

a).Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother.

b).Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother.[16]

Altogether,themaximsaresaidto“save”theCooperativePrinciple,theyexplainwhathappensinthecasewhenitisbreached.

Example:

Forrest:Ionlycaughtfive.

BoatSalesman:Acouplemoreandyoucanhaveyourselfacocktail.

…[17]

ThisisadialogueinthemovieForrestGump.AlthoughBubbatellsForresteverythingaboutshrimping,butForreststillfindsthatshrimpingistough.Oneday,heonlycatchesfiveaftera-whole-dayhardworking.TheboatsalesmanjustmakesajoketoForrestinordertocheerhimup.Meanwhile,healsotellsForrestafactthatForrestcatchestoolittle.ItisaninstanceofpolitenessaccordingtothePolitenessPrinciple.

4.2TheIronyPrinciple

AccordingtoLeech,ironyisasecond-orderprinciplethatbuildsonorexploitsthePolitenessPrinciple.TheIronyPrinciple(IPforshort)maybestatedinageneralformasfollows:

“Ifyoumustcauseoffence,atleastdosoinawaywhichdoesn’tovertlyconflictwiththePolitenessPrinciple,butallowsthehearertoarriveattheoffensivepointofyourremarkindirectly,bywayofimplicature.”[18]

IronycanhappenifthespeakerovervaluesthePolitenessPrinciplebyblatantlybreakingamaximoftheCooperativePrincipleinordertoupholdthePolitenessPrinciple.Forexample:

A:Geoffhasjustborrowedyourcar.

B:Well,IlikeTHAT![19]

AccordingtotheIronyPrinciple,wecaninterpretthisironicalutterancethisway:whatBsaysispolitetoGeoffandisclearlynottrue.ThereforewhatBreallymeansisimpolitetoGeoffandtrue.LeechbelievesthattheIPcanmakeaspeakerimpolitewhileseemingtobepolite.Inbeingpolite,aspeakerisoftenfacedwithaclashbetweentheCPandthePP.Thespeakerhastochoosehowfarto“trade-off”theCPagainstthePP.Inbeingironic,aspeakerexploitsthePPinordertouphold,ataremotelevel,theCP.

TheIronyPrincipleservesthepurposeofavoidingdirectcriticismthrough‘beingantisocial’,beinginsincerelypolite.ThisprincipleexplainswhysomeoftheGriceanmaximsarebreached.[20]

5.Ironyandverbalhumor

5.1VerbalHumor

Fromthesurfacemeaningofthephrase“verbalhumor”,wecaneasilygetitsmeaning:verbalhumoristhehumorthatisorganizedthroughverbalform.Verbalhumoristhehumorthatiscreatedorexpressedthroughlanguagewiththeassistanceofsituationalcontextoccasionally.

Verbalhumorcanbeproducedbykindsoffigureofspeech,say,personification,exaggeration,ironyandsoon.

5.2Verbalironyasanapproachtoverbalhumor

Verbalironyreferstospokenwordsonly.Itoccurswhenacharactersaysonething,butsuggestsorintendstheopposite.Itisanapproachtohumor.Asanexpressionofwisdom,ironyisfrequentlyusedbythegreatminds,say,writersorphilosophers.

Example:BernardShaw’sAnxiety

TheexceedinglyfascinatingandcharmingAmericanwomandancerDuncanoncegotoffacrack（說(shuō)俏皮話）toBernardShaw:“Sir,givenIamincombinationwith（與……結(jié)合）you,andthatwehaveachildwhohasbothmylooksandyourwisdomandability.Itshouldbecrackerjack（杰出的）.”Thecommonplace-looking（相貌平平）,IrishwriterBernardShawcrackedback（回嘴）:“Incasethechildonlyhasmylooksbutyourwisdomandability,thatwouldbecrack-brained（發(fā)瘋的）.”[21]

Inthisstory,BernardShaw’sAnxiety,whatBernardShawsaidisaccordingtothesentenceofthewomandancerDuncan.Sotheysharedtheunderstandingincommonandthehumorwasineffect.

Example:HatandHead

HansChristianAndersen,aDanishnurserytalewriter,wasborninahumblefamily.Heoftenworeatornhateveninthewinter.Aplayboylookeddownupon（看不起）himandsaidunconscionably（肆無(wú)忌憚）:“Whattheshabby（寒酸的）thingonyourhead?Isthatstilledcalledahat?”Nottobeoutdone（勝過(guò)）,Andersencountered（對(duì)抗）thatchapinreply:“Whattheshabbythingbeneathyourhat?Isthatstillcalledahead?”[22]

HereAndersenchangedtheorderofthetwowords,“hat”and“head”,whichhelpedhimtocrackback.Humorresulted.

Example:AGreatMan

EinsteinoncewrotealettertoCharlieChaplin.Hesaid:“Yourfilm‘TheModernTime’,everybodyintheworldcanunderstand.Youwillcertainlybecomeagreatman.Einstein.”

InhisanswertotheletterCharlieChaplinwrote:“Iadmireyouevenmore.YourTheoryofRelativitynobodyintheworldunderstands,butyouhavealreadybecomeagreatman.Chaplin.”[23]

Inthisstory,CharlieChaplinwasclevertolendironytoamuseandescapefrombeingoutdone.

Fromtheaboveexamples,theconclusioncanbeeasilyreachedasironyisfrequentlyusedtoproducehumor.Inotherwords,thehumorfeatureofironycouldbeeasilyfoundinhumorstories.

6.Pragmaticfunctionsofirony

Intheformerpartsofthispaper,wehavealreadydiscussedabouttherelationbetweenironyandCP,theassociationbetweenironyandIP,andtheconnectionbetweenironyandverbalhumor.ThoughironyseemstotakefloutingCPasitsownduty,itactsasanassistantofIPactively.Asatypeofverbalhumor,ironydevotesitselftoproducehumorinpeople’scommunications.However,whatarethepragmaticfunctionsofirony?Inthissection,thekeytothisquestionwillbepresentedmainlyfromtwomajoraspects:pragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironyandpragmaticfunctionsofChineseirony.

6.1PragmaticfunctionsofEnglishirony

PragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironycanbestatedinvariousways,similartotheclassificationofit.Inthefollowingpassage,theeffortwillbeconcentratedonthemajorfunctionsofirony.Firstly,whileusingironypeopletendtouseaffirmativetoexpresscritiqueordiscontent.Secondly,ironyisalwaysusedasameanstosatirize.Thirdly,ironyisusedasanapproachtobepolite.Lastbutnottheleast,ironyisusedasanapproachtobehumorous.

6.1.1Usedasanaffirmativetoexpresscritiqueordiscontent

InEnglish,ironyisoftenusedtostateone’snegativeattitudetosomething.Forexample:

(1)Ijustadoremosquitoes.[24]

(2)Youareabighelp![25]

(3)Youaretellingstories![26]

Inexample(1),“adore”actuallytellsusthedispleasureofthespeaker.Itcanbelearnedfromthemeaningbetweenthelinesthatthespeakerhatesmosquitoesinfact.Thesentenceofexample(2)isnotreallyusedtopraisethe“help”buttoindicate,“Youonlydonothingtohelp.”Thespeakerofexample(3)appliesironytomakeamockery.

Ineverydaylife,peopletendtouseironyintheirspeechthoughsometimestheymaynotbeconsciousofit.Thefollowingisanotherinstance:

(4)Thismorning,Iwaslateforwork;atnoon,Ihadmybikestolen;onthewayhomethisafternoon,Islippeddowninthestreet.Sotoday,Iamcertainlyenjoyingmyself.[27]

Obviously,thenarratordidnotenjoyhimselfindeedthisday.Withthestrongdiscontentoftheterribleexperience,heexpressedhisdispleasurebyusingtheoppositeword“enjoy”.

6.1.2Usedasameanstosatirize

Ironyisusedtoveilfeelingsinasubtleway.Wordsofpraiseareoftenfoundwherecondemnationismeant.Belowaresomeexamples:

(1)LikealltheotherofficersatGroupHeadquartersexceptMajorDanby,ColonelCathcartwasinfusedwiththedemocraticspirit:hebelievedthatallmenoutsideGroupequal,andhethereforespurnedallmenoutsideGroupHeadquarterswithequalfervour.(JosephHeller:Catch22)[28]

(ThispassageimpliesthatColonelCathcartwasnotdemocraticatall:hisdemocraticspiritextendedonlytohisowngroup;allothershetreatedwithscornandhighhandedness.)

(2)…ayounghealthychildwellnursedisatayearoldamostdelicious,nourishing,andwholesomefood,whetherstewed,roasted,bakedorboiled;andImakenodoubtthatitwillequallyserveinafricasseeoraragout.[29]

Theauthorhereproposedthemeasuretosolvetheproblemofstarvationandoverpopulationbyeatingorsellingchildrenfrompoorfamilies.However,hisrealpurposewastoripoffthehypocriticalmaskofhypocrites.Usedasameanstosatirize,ironyhelpedtodisclosetheseriousproblemofthesocietyinaboveexample.

6.1.3Usedasanapproachtobepolite

Indailyconversation,peopleareapttobepolite.Asanindirectexpression,ironyiswidelyapplied.Forexample:

(1)“Haveadrink?”

“Allright,butnotupatthebar.Wewilltakeatable.”

“Theperfectfather.”

(F.S.FitzgeraldBabylonRevisited)[30]

(2)“Theboyhasbrokenanotherglass,”saidthemother.

“Afinething!”thefatherreplied.[31]

Inexample(1),thesonchosethepolitewayofusing“theperfectfather”whichactuallyreferredtoonewhowasstingyaboutmoneymatter.Ifhecomplaineddirectlytohisfatherthat“Astingyfather”,theimpolitenesswouldbreaktherelationshipbetweenthefatherandsonmoreorless.Conversely,thefatherinexample(2)criticizedthefaultofhissoninanindirectway.“Afinething!”couldbetreatedasacriticismoutofgoodwill.

6.1.4Usedasanapproachtobehumorous

InSection5.2ofthispaper,wehavelearnedthatverbalironyservesasanapproachofverbalhumor.Therefore,thehumorousfunctionofironycanbeeasilyrevealed.Belowaresomemoreexamplesforfurtheracknowledging.

(1)Politehorse

TheBachseesBallwalkinglamely,askshim:“What’shappened?”Ballsays:“IwenttotheforestparktoridethehorseonSunday.”“I’msurethatitwasanunruly（難駕馭的），orthehorsedidnotallowtoride?”“Botharenot.Justthehorsewasverypolite---whenitrantoastockade（柵欄）atafullgallop,itstoppedallofasuddenandmademeleapoverfirst.”SaysBall.[32]

(2)TakeninTwice

“What’sthematterwithyourhands?”

“Theywerebittenbytheserpent（大蛇）.”

“Howcanithappen?”

“Iwenttotheforestthedaybeforeyesterday.Seeingthereisasnakearoundthetree,Ipickedupasticktobeat.”

“Missedthetarget.”

“No,whatistwisted（纏繞）aroundthetreewasarope,whilewhatIpickedupwasjustasnake.”[33]

Anewconceptionofwhatapolitehorseisshowsforthinexample(1).HumoroccurredwhenBallunderstatedhisdispleasingexperiencebyusingirony.Similarly,theembarrassmentofthenarratorinexample(2)iswellveiledintheironicstatement,whichbringshumortogoodeffect.

6.2PragmaticfunctionsofChineseirony

6.2.1Chineseirony

Chineseirony,tosomeextent,isequaltothetypeofEnglishirony,namelyverbalirony.Generallyspeaking,itcanbeclassifiedasfivetypes:ironyforcommendationandderogation（褒貶反語(yǔ)），ironyforsatire(諷刺反語(yǔ))，ironyforfun（趣味反語(yǔ)）,ironyforaffection（親熱反語(yǔ)）andironyforemphasis（強(qiáng)調(diào)反語(yǔ)）.[34]Theclassificationisbasicallyinthelightofthepragmaticfunctionsofirony.Thedetaileddemonstrationofthemwillbecontinuedinthefollowingparts.

6.2.2PragmaticfunctionsofChineseirony

(i)Ironyforpraiseanddenigration

Ironyforpraiseanddenigrationistousepraiseinsteadofderogatoryterm,orviceversa.Itisanindirectutterancethatcanavoidmakingcommentsindirectway.Ithasnothingtodowithsarcasm.Forinstance:

鳳姐道：“我那里管得這些事來(lái)？見(jiàn)識(shí)又淺，口角又笨，心腸又直率，人家給個(gè)棒槌我就認(rèn)作針，臉皮又軟，擱不住人家兩句好話，心里就慈悲了?！?/p>

(“I’mincapabableofrunningthings,”shesigned.“I’mtooignorant,bluntandtactless,alwaysgettingholdofthewrongendofthestick.AndI’msosoft-hearted,anyonecangetroundme….”)[35]

Apparently,WangXi-fengdowngradedherselfas“ignorant,bluntandtactless”.However,herpersonalityiswellknownastalent,quick-tonguedandwise.Itcanbeconsideredthatironyisusedtobemodestinthissituation.

(ii)Ironyforsatire

Satireplaysaroleoffrequentfeatureofirony.Itseemslikeaspoiledchildtosomeliteraturewriters.Forexample:

(1)幾個(gè)“慈祥”的老板到菜場(chǎng)去收集一些菜葉，用鹽一浸，這就是他們難得的佳肴。

(Somekind-heartedbossesgotothemarketandpickupsomevegetableleaves,comingbackanddippingthemintosaltwater,thenagod-givencateisreadyforthem(thewomenworkers))[36]

(2)湘云笑道：“‘主雅客來(lái)勤’，自然你有些警動(dòng)他的好處，他才要會(huì)你?！睂氂竦溃骸傲T，罷！我也不稱雅，我乃俗中又俗的一個(gè)俗人，并不愿同這些人來(lái)往?！?/p>

(“‘Whenthehostiscultured,guestsfrequenthishouse’,”quotedHsiang-yun.“Helikesseeingyou,surely,becausehecanlearnsomethingfromyou.”

“Don’tcallmecultured,”beggedPao-yu.“I’mthemostvulgarofthevulgarherd,andI’venodesireatalltomixwithsuchpeople.”)[37]

Inexample(1),theauthorlent“kind-hearted”toridiculethebosseswhotreatedthewomenworkersniggardly.Inexample(2),Pao-yulaughedathimselfas“themostvulgarofthevulgarherd”,ironically.

(iii)Ironyforfun

Ironyforfunreferstotheonethatmaycreatearelaxedatmosphere.Forexample:

這個(gè)“四十條”去年以來(lái)不吃香了，現(xiàn)在又“復(fù)辟”了。

(Thesefortyarticleswentoutofvoguelastyearbutarenowstaginga“comeback”.)[38]

Literally,“comeback”isanexpressionofcensure.Buthereitstandsforanewstartingofthefortyarticles.Byusingthisword,thespeechrunsmoothlyunderthelightair.

(iv)Ironyforaffection

Ironyissometimesusedtoexpressstrongaffection.Tomakeadvancestoothers,peoplecanuseironyasasupport.Forexample:

幾個(gè)女人有點(diǎn)失望，也有些傷心，各人在心里罵著自己的狠心賊。

(Disappointedandratherupset,eachwomanwassecretlylayingtheblameonherheartlessbruteofahusband.)[39]

Seemingly,thesewomenwereblamingtheirhusbands.Actually,thatisnotthecase.Theylovedtheirhusbandssomuchthatironywasusedtomanifesttheirrealaffectionindirectlybytheauthor.

(v)Ironyforemphasis

Ironycanbeapprovedinthefollowingexamplethatitcanemphasizetheoppositemeaning.

Example:

我于是日日盼望新年，新年到，閏土也就到了。好容易到了年末，有一日，母親告訴我，閏土來(lái)了，我便飛跑的去看。

（IlookedforwardeverydaytoNewYear,forNewYearwouldbringRuntu.Atlasttheendoftheyearcame,andonedayMothertoldmethatRuntuhadcome,andIflewtoseehim.）[40]

Here“好容易”canbeeasilyunderstoodasitsrealmeaning“好不容易”.PeoplecancatchitsmeaningasthisisancommonexpressioninChinese,say,“好不高興”means“好高興”，andsoon.

6.3ThecomparisonbetweenEnglishironyandChineseirony

TherearebothsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenEnglishironyandChineseirony.Thesimilaritieslieinsomeaspects.Theyarebothusedforsatirizing,amusingandproducinghumor.Itseemsthatthedifferencescountmuchmorethanthesimilarities.

ThedifferencesbetweenEnglishironyandChineseironymainlylieinfourpointsasfollows.Firstly,theclassificationofEnglishironydiffersfromthatofChineseirony.ThefourmajortypesofironyinEnglishareverbal,dramatic,situationalandcomic.Tosomeextent,ChineseironyisincludedinEnglishironyasverbalirony.Secondly,EnglishironydependsoncontexttoalargerextentwhileChineseironysimplycountsonwords.Besides,ironyforaffectionturnsouttoappearmorefrequentlyinChineseironythaninEnglish.Lastbutnottheleast,ironyforemphasiscanberegardedasauniquefeatureofChineseironysinceitcouldnotbefoundinEnglish.

7.Conclusion

Asstated,thepragmaticfunctionsofEnglishironyareasfollows:usedasameanstoexpresscritiqueordiscontent,usedasameanstosatirize,usedasanapproachtobepolite,usedasanapproachtobehumorous.Meanwhile,thepragmaticfunctionsofChineseironyarepresentedas:ironyforpraiseanddenigration,ironyforsatire,ironyforfun,ironyforaffectionandironyforemphasis.

Fromtheabovediscussioninthispaper,wecancometoaconclusionthatthemajorpragmaticfunctionsofironycouldbestatedashumorousfunctions.Inabroadsense,thehumorousfunctionsmayberegardedaslighthumorousfunctionsandheavyhumorousfunctions.Thefunctiontobehumorouscouldbeconsideredasonebreachofthehumorousfunctions.Thelighthumorousfunctionsincludethefunctiontobepolite,thefunctiontobehumorous,ironyforfun,etc.Ontheotherhand,thefunctionforsatireservesasaheavyhumorousfunction.Tosumup,themainfeatureofironyishumorfeature.

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